Monday, January 27, 2020
Induced Electromotive Force in Potatoes | Experiment
Induced Electromotive Force in Potatoes | Experiment I was first introduced to vegetative electric energy during my freshman year in high school, when our chemistry teacher showed a lemon battery at work as we were studying Electrochemistry. I got very intrigued with the idea of generating electricity with lemons, and I later learnt that many organic substances exist which can also produce electricity. The next year of my high school, I heard about the global consumption of power, and how the earths natural resources were getting depleted, and got an idea that if natural organic batteries were developed, the resources of the earth would remain stable. Thus I took up this study to help me explore the possibility of organic fuel cells and its capability of generating electromotive force. For this study I will take potatoes into consideration because of their high acid content and the relative accessibility of it. The acid responsible for the generation of EMF within the potato is Phosphoric acid, but my experiment will deal with what causes the change in the EMF when the potatoes are boiled. Initially I thought the cause lied in the varying concentration of the electrolyte, but upon further study and research found the reason to lie within the cell membranes of the potatoes that get ruptured during the boiling process of the potatoes, thereby varying the EMF generated. After maize, wheat, and rice, potato is the worlds fourth most important food crop with an annual production of more than 323 x 106 tons with more than one-third coming from developing countries. Thus if potatoes do prove to be beneficial asset, it can able easily adopted by those who are lacking electrical infrastructure as part of the daily routine since it is cheap and requires no special skills for assembly. RESEARCH QUESTION: How does the induced electromotive force generated from the potatoes depend on the state of the potato (i.e. Fresh potato vs. Boiled Potato)? INTRODUCTION: The first batteries were researched and invented by Volta when he made a device capable of producing electricity by the mere contact of conducting substances of different species. The invention of Voltaic battery had marked the birth of a new era in the development of modern physics and made a significant change in our lifestyle. Battery technology has without a doubt seen progress, starting from it being dependent on organic/biological matters to it becoming more efficient using inorganic-reaction-based technology. However from the end of the 20th century, biological batteries were just a mere science experiment performed in highs school, however with the growing concern of depleting the earths resources, there has been a new found interest in the development of organic fuel cells. In order to highlight this growing interest, I have performed a study regarding the basic school experiment of a potato battery. For the first part of my study, I will perform the normal experiment by making a potato cell, using Zinc and Copper electrodes and recording the electromotive force (EMF) generated. Now, for the second part, I will boil the potatoes and record the readings of the EMF generated. I will compare the two results, and comment about my observations, and make possible conclusions about why there is a change in EMF generated or why there is no change in EMF generated. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ELECTROCHEMISTRY Electrochemistry deals with the inter-conversion of electrical energy and chemical energy. This study will deal with the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy (Electrochemical Cells). An electrochemical cell mainly consists of two major components: left hand electrode (LHE) and the right hand electrode (RHE). In LHE, oxidation (loss of electron) takes place and is called the anode. In RHE, reduction (gain of electron) takes place and is called cathode. Anode is generally of that metal (or substance) which readily loses electrons (i.e. Oxidized easily). Cathode is a metal which readily accepts electrons (i.e. Reduced easily). There are two specific ways in order to create an electrochemical, voltaic or galvanic cell. Method 1: Put the LHE (anode) into the solution of the electrolyte of the Cathode (containing the ions of the cathode). This allows the anode to loose electrons per atom and the ions present in the electrolyte accept the electrons. Thus, the cathode ions from the solution in this manner get deposited in order to form the metals of the respective cathode and the metal anode goes into the solution as ions. The reaction can be understood with two half-cell reactions: Oxidation M Anode (S) Mn+(aq) Anode+ ne- Reduction: Mn+(aq) Cathode + ne- M Cathode(S) _ ___________________________________________________ Overall Reaction: M Anode(S) + Mn+(aq) Cathode M Cathode (S) + Mn+(aq)Anode Where, M Anode(S) is the element that gets oxidized at the anode, M Cathode(S) is the element that gets reduced at the cathode, ne- is the number of electrons lost/gained during the reaction A rod of that metal is prepared and placed into one of its own solution in LHE to get anode. In RHE, a rod of metal that loses electrons less easily as compared to the metal of LHE is prepared and put into one of the solution to get the cathode. LHE and RHE are also known as two-half cells. Now the electrons move from anode (LHE) to cathode (RHE) and hence a current flow is maintained in the external circuit. This current flow is due to the fact that a potential difference is created this and this is called the E.M.F, electromotive force of a cell. The two separate containers are connected by a inverted tube U shaped tube called as salt bridge. The salt bridge contains solution of strong ionic salts like NaCl, NaNO3 and KCl etc. (salts of most reactive alkali metals) soaked in colloidal solution of agar-gel which only allows movements of ions, not water. The role of the slat bridge is very important as it allows the continuous discharge of the cell. The salt bridge keeps the two solutions electrically neutral to one another. In the Fe-CuSO4 cell, in the left cell as Fe loses electrons, excess of positive charge in the form of Fe2+ is collected near the LHE and as Cu2+ ions gets discharged accepting electrons form Fe in the right hand cell, excess of negative charge in the form of SO42- is accumulated near the RHE. Now the salt bridge provides positive charge to RHE (in form of K+ ions) and negative charge to the LHE (in the form Cl-) and thus bringing about the neutrality of two solutions. If this does not take place, a reverse potential difference is created in the two compartments and thus breaking the continuous supple of voltage (current), which is the purpose of the cell. The efficiency of a cell is determined by the tendency of LHE to loose electrons and the tendency of RHE to accept electrons. A measure of cell efficiency is called as electromotive force (EMF) or the voltage or the difference in potentials of two electrodes. EMF is defined as the difference in the potential across LHE and RHE to which electrons from anode travel to cathode. My experiment consists of the above explanation with regard to a Secondary Battery or also called Galvanic Cell, which uses the main principles of the method mentioned above, but lacks a salt bridge but the cell membranes within the potato act as a salt bridge. The electrolyte in the potatoes is the phosphoric acid which does not actively participate in the reaction, since its main purpose is to make Zn loose electrons by oxidizing it, the potato provides the protons and the Cu plate remains unaffected by the acid bath. My storage battery is the potato, with the anode plate is made up of Zinc (Zn), while the cathode plate is Copper (Cu). The electrolyte which initiates the reaction or makes the reaction possible in potatoes is phosphoric acid (H3PO4). My experiment will involve the use of iron nails (Zn+2/Zn) acting as anode, and copper plates (Cu+2/Cu) as cathode. These are placed in an electrically conductive solution that allows ions to travel freely between the two metals in this case potato. The acid steadily eats away at the Zinc, a chemical reaction that releases spare zinc electrons. These electrons then join with spare hydrogen ions in the acid to create hydrogen gas. Meanwhile, the copper remains unaffected even when submerged in acid but as soon as a conducting wire is connected between it and iron electrons flow from copper to Iron. The spare iron electrons are still intent on forming hydrogen gas, but they have an easier time doing it with the hydrogen surrounding the iron anode. So the electrons from the copper cathode travel through the wire to get to the iron. Batteries exploit this flow of electrons, therefore producing induced EMF. In most of the batteries, there is internal resistance which makes it impossible for the battery to produce 100% of its maximum potential difference. The same is applicable for the potato battery in the form of GAII (Galvanic apparent internal impedance, a trait related to both the salt bridge function of a given tissue delineated between electrodes and to the battery internal resistance properties). This electrical impedance can be a classified into further categories which is out of scope of this study. But the concept of GAII is useful as it can explain the relation between the EMF generated from a boiled potato as compared to a fresh potato. Thus the EMF generated from one potato is because of the potential difference created by the electrodes as in the above mentioned cases. But since the number of potatoes remains constant, the reacting species also is constant, i.e. when two potatoes are used, each potato will have an zinc and copper plate, and thus when the zinc gets oxidized by the potatoes, same electrons will enter the iron electrode from the copper, thus EMF generated should be same. But this is where my experiment differs. MY ORIGINALITY: Experiments have already been conducted on fresh potatoes and the induced EMF but, I planned to boil my potatoes and observe the readings of the EMF generated and compare the results obtained from performing the experiment with raw potatoes. The potatoes by default will be similar and will be microwaved in KCl solution for scientific vigor, and then after certain attainment of room temperature, the EMF generated will be recorded. The readings and the graph will make clear weather the boiling of potatoes changes the EMF and what makes the EMF generated to change. MY HYPOTHESIS The induced EMF generated from the experiment being performed with boiled potatoes compared to raw potatoes will decrease since the concentration of phosphoric acid will decrease, since the potatoes are boiled in aqueous solution, thus diluting the already present phosphoric acid, and thus since the concentration of the electrolyte decreases so will the rate of oxidization and reduction, eventually leading to the decrease in the EMF generated. The GAII may also play a part since when the potatoes are boiled the inner temperature of the potato increases causing denaturation and this might affect the flow of electrons thereby affecting the EMF generated. METHOD Battery Design Commercially available potatoes were used throughout, due to ease of accessibility and for economic factors. The mineral composition of the potatoes has been given in Table 1 of the appendix. I compared the EMF generated from cells made of potatoes treats as follows Raw/Fresh/untreated Boiled/treated For the preparation of the Galvanic cell, the potatoes in both cases were cut into 5x2x2cm and were sandwiched between the Iron and Copper plates. Potato Denaturation by Boiling I compared the electrical energy generated from untreated potatoes compared to that of treated potatoes. For scientific vigour, I immersed the sliced potatoes in 1 mol dm-3 KCl solution and microwaved at 800W for 5 minutes. Measurement of EMF The amount of EMF (V) generated was evaluated using a Vernier Lab Quest connected to the cell. The measurement was also taken for Current (I) and Power (P). These measurements were taken over a period of 2 hours over a constant load of equal resistance. In order to prevent the potato coming in contact with air it was covered with Parafilm in order to reduce drying and oxidation. VARIABLES INDEPENDANT VARIABLES: The independent variable in this experiment is the potatoes, or the state of the potatoes i.e. boiled or fresh. Thus the experiment will be carried out with fresh potatoes, and then further into boiled potatoes., For similar concentration, and volume of acid in potatoes, similar sized potatoes were taken so that the result will not deviate. The potatoes act as independent batteries, providing induced EMF as they are connected in series. The reason they act as a battery is because the copper and zinc electrode undergo redox reactions in the presence of the acid which acts as an electrolyte, which creates a potential difference and this is calculated to be EMF DEPENDANT VARIABLES: The dependant variable is the EMF generated by the potatoes when arranged in series. It will be measured with a Vernier Lab Quest which is connected to the computer The potential difference will be calculated, between the two extremes of the electrodes (anode and cathode => Zinc and copper plate). This given criteria is same for both the set up. The unit of measure is the Volt. The readings will be taken for two hours for each. CONTROLLED VARIABLES: The apparatus used was same throughout the experiment, since this will reduce mean deviation and the calculations will be done with respect to the other readings therefore, error is less The temperature in the room was controlled and was kept at 300K and this is with respect to the room temperature and not the temperature of the potato. The arrangement of the potatoes and the beakers was done in series since that would accurately judge between the EMF discrepancies between boiled and unoiled potatoes. Similar sized potatoes were taken in the hopes that the concentration of phosphoric acid would be similar; therefore the readings will not have much discrepancy relative to each other. When the potatoes were boiled, all were boiled to the same temperature, for the same amount of time, and were removed from the water bath at approximately the same time The apparatus was cleaned thoroughly before performing each experiment so as to reduce discrepancies in the readings, with respect to other readings. The amount of insertion of the Iron and copper into the potato was same throughout all the experiments at 3 ±0.1cm. The potatoes were all sliced up into the following dimension 5 x 2 x 2 cm and were sandwiched between the electrodes. The part of the potato exposed to the air was covered with Parafilm in order to prevent the potato from drying and reduction. CONSTANT VARIABLE: The copper plate and the iron nails used were the same throughout the experiment, so was the location where the experiment took place so as to keep all errors due to pressure and temperature constant. The same water bath was used to boil the potatoes, in order to keep the potatoes at constant temperature with regard to each other. The time taken for recording the EMF generated from the potatoes in both cases was taken as 2 hours. DATA AND GRAPHS ACTUAL REACTIONS TAKING PLACE Oxidation: Zn: Zn Zn++ + 2e- , E0 = 0.76V, Reduction: Cu: 2H+ + 2e- H2 , E0 = 0.00V Overall: Zn + 2H+ Zn++ + H2, à ¢Ã‹â€ †E0 = 0.76V REASON FOR THE REACTIONS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA My results conclude that Zn electrode and the reduction of hydrogen at the Cu electrode are the dominating reactions which give rise to EMF, Current Density and the potential difference. Maximum power delivered by boiled potato cells with ruptured membranes may reach values an order of magnitude higher than that generated by untreated potato. When the data was compared, a direct relationship between the ability of the potato battery to deliver power and GAII (Galvanic apparent internal impedance, a trait related to both the salt bridge function of a given tissue delineated between electrodes and to the battery internal resistance properties) becomes evident. The significant increase in electric energy generation with membrane destruction shows that the ionic diffusivity through the tissue bridge between electrodes is the reason behind this phenomenon, as effective diffusivity of protons increases with membrane rupture. In contrast, the rate of proton flux is reduced when cell membranes are intact probably due to the tortuosity of the extracellular space as well as the equivalent reduction in the concentration of the electrolytes per unit volume when the intracellular fluids do not actively participate in the ionic transport. CONCLUSION: From the data and the graphs it is clearly visible that my hypothesis was inaccurate, since the EMF generated did not decrease with the boiling of potatoes, but increased and also lasted longer under the same external load compared to the fresh potato. The potato serves only as a medium for the movements of electrons from the zinc electrode. The potato supplies the protons thus generating electricity. Fresh potatoes do it, but the strong internal resistance makes it very inefficient. Boiling the potato destroys membranes and possibly some part of the cell walls, thus reducing significantly the internal resistance and increase 10 folds the generation of power. The bio electrolytic low power electrical energy source introduced in this study brings an dimension to the utilization of the globally fourth most abundant crop accessible essentially all over the world, made of solid components and requires low financial investment compared with solar or conventional batteries. EVALUATION: The experiment was conducted in a non-ideal conditions which could lead to errors:~ Systematic Error: The Parafilm had foreign bodies or had an unwanted flaw which could have not given me an accurate reading The reading of the electronic balance may also have a manufacturing defect, thereby leading to a difference in the times taken. The lab quest may be defective or may have been inaccurate which may have given inaccurate results. The microwave may not have operated throughout the five minutes at 800W, thus leading to a variation in the temperature achieved by the potato in order to break the cell membrane. Random Errors: There might have been a gap or hole in the Parafilm leading to increased drying of the potato thereby affecting the EMF generated. Human parallax error when adjusting the volume of the solutions by taking only the lower meniscus. The apparatus used may contain remnants of other chemicals leading to an impure solution. The temperature of the room was taken to be constant, but there might have been fluctuation in the actual temperature thus leading to heat loss, and null results. The electronic balance might not have been zeroed out to take the new reading or might have had impurities which could have given inaccurate readings The microwave may not have run for exactly 5 minutes, thus leading to different boiling degrees EMF of the potato was taken every 3 seconds from the start of the reaction and thus the increase/decrease would not be exactly accurate, leading to a discrepancy in data.
Sunday, January 19, 2020
“Immigrant” becomes dirtiest word as Americans are told to speak English
A recent article from the Independent Newspaper's correspondent in New York brings to our attention â€Å"the current mood of xenophobia†in the USA. After approximately two centuries of welcoming immigrants from around the world, it would seem that the Americans have begun to mistrust and to some extent, even fear the very people that have historically given them such a dynamic and diverse country, namely, foreign immigrants. There are several reasons for this recent shift in perspective, two of which are, recent terrorist attacks on American servicemen in Saudi Arabia and an explosion on an American airline flight, that foreign terrorists caused some people suspect. Historian, Arthur Schlesinger has spoken on â€Å"the tribalization of American life†and appears to be suggesting that the different ethnic groups in America are arranging themselves into their own groups and not crossing ethnic boundaries. One symptom of this seems to be the gang culture that exists, where each gang is alleged to be made up from members of the same ethnic group. A key factor in this is language, generally people who only speak one language find it difficult to mix with other ethnic groups or cultures, or indeed find it difficult to understand other cultures viewpoint. As a result of all of these difficulties, the government has introduced a bill called â€Å"The English Language Empowerment Act†the main purpose of which is to make English the official language of America. It is perceived by Republicans, that this Act will encourage immigrants to learn English, as it will be difficult, if not impossible for them to understand federal documents that are written in English. The Act has already been criticised for infringing on American's right to free speech and making it difficult for non-English speaking Americans to receive or even understand information or ideas. It is a safe assumption to make, that if people can't speak English, then they will be unable to understand written English. This argument would seem to carry a significant amount of weight. People have put forward the argument that this Act is connected with attitudes towards Immigrants. This argument seems to be borne out by the fact that there is nothing in the Act that will help to actually teach people how to speak or read English, rather it seems to punish those who can't by denying them access to written information. It has also been pointed out by opponents to the Act, that ninety seven percent of Americans speak English already and a very small proportion of government documents (around one percent,) are actually written in a foreign language. Some people looking at these statistics, would argue that there is no need for this Act, unless it were to force people into becoming â€Å"more American†and punishing those who preferred to stick to their own language and culture. This argument seems to be borne out further by another piece of Republican proposed legislation, the welfare reform Bill. One provision of this Bill would be that, immigrants who are in America quite legally, but are not yet citizens, would not be eligible for state welfare benefits, yet another form of â€Å"immigrant bashing†some might say. Hot button as mentioned in the article; a controversial thing of the moment, it is a happening now situation. Enduring canard, a lasting ongoing issue, to accept with a certain amount of tolerance regarding political correctness, in this case a probability that it has come about in the course of sensationalism and cock-and-bull story of this report in America's newspapers. Polyglot America Speaking, reading and writing many different languages, in this case America.
Saturday, January 11, 2020
Human Memory and Knowledge Construction: Increases in Student Learning Essay
It is essential to help students effectively store and retrieve information from their long-term memory. Human memory is related to the way information is received, interpreted, stored, and retrieved. In short, information is brought into the sensory register. The stimulus then moves into the working memory and is then stored in the long-term memory. An understanding of Piaget’s theory of knowledge construction helps teachers to guide meaningful lessons and conversations that maximize student learning. It is therefore crucial that teachers understand human memory and learning as well as strategies to enhance these aspects in the classroom to support student learning. An understanding of memory is essential for teaching students. Memory is the process of storing and retrieving information and behaviors. Human memory has several components that are essential for effective storage and retrieval. Storage is the process of taking what was presented and placing it in a location in the brain’s storage space for later retrieval. Retrieval is the process of recalling the information that was previously stored. One way to think about this part of memory is to think of the brain like a file system. Although it is not entirely accurate, this analogy works to describe parts of the storage and retrieval process. In this way, the brain is like a filing cabinet. There are files for many concepts and the information is stored according to these files. This is a person’s schema; Schema is an organized set of information about a topic. For example, a person could have a schema for beaches. This schema would contain information such as white sand, the sound of seagulls, and tide pools. If this was a file system, there would be a file labeled beaches, and inside of that file would be information, pictures, and memorabilia related to beaches. One way that human memory is different from a filing system is that one piece of information could be stored in connection to more than one schema. One way to think about this is like a web, where the central idea is in the center, and ideas and information come from the center into sub categories. These subcategories can also have other subcategories, and can be connected to other ideas and concepts. Retrieval is related to the filing system, also. In this way, when a person is looking for information, they go to the file where the information is stored and pull out what they need. When a person is retrieving information for their memory, they use retrieval cues in a similar manner. Retrieval cues are stimuli that help people recall information. This too is related to a person’s schema as well as the web analogy. In this way, when a person smells a certain scent, like pine trees, they pull forward all the schemas that contain the smell of pine trees. This allows the brain to go through a smaller amount of stored information for a faster retrieval. In this example, schemas of Christmas, the woods, and grandma’s house may be brought forward. When information is not stored in an appropriate schema, retrieval is more difficult and slower than if it were stored in a memorable place. This is important for student education and the teaching process. It is important for teachers to help students to store information learned in class in order to improve retrieval and make connections across schemas. There are three places that a stimulus can go. The first is the sensory register. This is where the brain decides whether or not the stimulus is necessary for a person to consciously consider. This means that some things make it to the working memory and some things are ignored. This is important because people are exposed to many stimuli at the same time and if attention was paid to all of them, the person would not be able to concentrate on any given stimulus. This is often a large problem for students with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). Students who have ADD are viewed as being unable to concentrate on their school work. The actual problem is that students with ADD are paying attention to many stimuli making it difficult to concentrate on a single stimulus. Students who have ADD often have trouble with their sensory register because it does not ignore the unnecessary stimuli of their surroundings, such as noise in the hallway, leaves quivering on a tree outside, or the sound of a noisy heater. Once a stimulus has been deemed worthy of consideration by the sensory register it moves into the working memory. This is where meaningful thinking occurs and connections are made, before the information is stored in the long term memory. This is where students need help making sense of information. The working memory is like a Post-it note. The initial idea is placed on the Post-it. Information can then be added to the Post-it, attached to other Post-its, or moved to another place to make a connection. Students need to be guided to make connections and understand the presented information. Long term memory is where the information is stored for later retrieval. Once a person has processed the information in the working memory and made connections to prior knowledge and experiences, the brain then stores the information accordingly. Effective storage requires that the information is stored according to schemas for retrieval. For example, when I was traveling in Misiones, Argentina, I came across a strange animal. Looking at this animal, it looked like a mix of a raccoon and an anteater. It had a long tail like a lemur and sat like a bear cub. Later I discovered that this animal is called a Coatà . The Coatà , therefore, is stored in my long term memory, in relation to schemas about Misiones, Argentina, animals, and tropical forests. In chapter two of Ormrod’s (2012) book, Essentials of Educational Psychology Big Ideas to Guide Effective Teaching, Ormrod describes three processes for effectively storing information in long term memory. These processes will be discussed in relation to the case study. The case study involved a teacher, Mrs. Dennison, and her class, as they discovered endangered species. Mrs. Dennison uses many different techniques to help her students to learn this material. The first process is elaboration. This is where the receiver takes the information that they have been presented with and supplements it with realistic hypotheses to more deeply understand the concept. These hypotheses come from relationships with other prior knowledge. Ms. Dennison shows the class a video to introduce the concept of endangered species. She begins with a video on manatees. This is an unfamiliar topic for students. She then guides the students through questioning, to elaborate on the presented information. The students are then able to make connections to what they already know about animals. For example, Ms. Dennison asks â€Å"is the manatee like anything you’ve ever seen before?†and â€Å"How big is the manatee compared to you?†She also asks her students how they think that manatees swim and later asks why manatees do not live as far north as Canada. The second process is organization. The process of organization is where a person makes connections between ideas. Under the umbrella of endangered species, Ms. Dennison introduces manatees. She then introduces loggerhead turtles. Using a matrix, Ms. Dennison guides her students to comparing and contrasting the two endangered animals. She also does this using the maps. This map shows the overlap of the habitats of the two animals and also where the loggerhead turtle can live that manatees cannot. The final storage process suggested by Ormrod is visual imagery. This process involves a person creating a picture in his or her mind either from the way he or she imagines it looks or from being exposed to images of the concept. Ms. Dennison helps her students to use this process by using videos and images. In the beginning of the unit, Ms. Dennison uses a video on manatees to introduce students to manatees and endangered species. She asks students to relate what the manatee looked like in the video to something else that they had seen before. She shows a video about loggerhead turtles as well as tapes a picture of the loggerhead turtle in the description column of the matrix. Ms. Dennison used these strategies for storing information in conjunction with the three component memory system. Initially the information is brought into the sensory register. This comes from the videos. The information is deemed as important and therefore moves to the working memory. To help students take the information from the sensory register to the working memory, the teacher asks students to make observations. Here the teacher guides the students to organize and elaborate on the information to be stored in long term memory. The teacher helps the students to make connections to prior knowledge, create new knowledge through hypotheses, and organize the information for effective storage and retrieval. She does this through class discussions, the use of the matrix and map, and making meaningful connections to the things the students were already familiar with. The teacher leads the students to move the information from the working memory to the long-term memory. By helping students to organize the information into appropriate schemas, the teacher helps the students to successfully store the information into their long-term memory. She is doing this by using the matrix and maps as well as comparing and contrasting the animals. She also helps the students to practice their retrieval skills when she asks them to recall the previously discussed definitions such as habitat. The methods used by Ms. Dennison will be effective for long-term memory storage and successful retrieval because she uses all three methods for long-term memory storage. She helps the students to create meaningful connections allowing the information to be stored in many different schemas. She also helped students to create their own schema for endangered species. Within that schema, using the matrix, classroom discussions, and map, she is able to guide students to create subcategories of the schema for each animal as well as the environmental implications. The systemized organization of the schema will help students perform effective and efficient retrieval for future reference. Piaget, a researcher from Switzerland, devoted his life to understanding the way children develop cognitively. Piaget’s theory of knowledge construction is based in the notion that children are motivated to learn by disequilibrium. Piaget explained that when a student is in disequilibrium he or she feels uncomfortable and needs to return to equilibrium. This shift is made through accommodation and assimilation. Assimilation is when a person takes an unknown stimulus and fits it to an existing schema. For example, when a young child is presented with an unknown animal, such as a zebra, he or she is in disequilibrium because he or she is unsure what kind of animal it is. After observing the zebra, the child discovers that the zebra has many characteristics of a horse. In order to get back into equilibrium, the child decides that the zebra is a horse. Here the child assimilates the information into the existing schema of horse. Accommodation is when a person creates a new schema or reorganizes an existing schema to harbor the new information. Returning to the child who sees a zebra for the first time, to accommodate this new animal into a schema the child decides that the zebra is not a horse but a new animal all together. The child then creates a new schema for zebras that contains information regarding how the zebra is similar to and different than a horse. Piaget’s theory of knowledge construction is apparent in the case study. Ms. Dennison recognizes that because of the geographic location of her students, manatees, loggerhead turtles, and other endangered species may not be something that the students are familiar with, thus causing disequilibrium. In order to help her students to get back into equilibrium Ms. Dennison helps her students to accommodate the information. One way that she does this is by asking the student to relate the manatee to something that they are familiar with. Keri suggests that a manatee is like a cow. Being from Wisconsin, this is something that many students can relate to. Ms. Dennison explains that manatees are often called sea cows. If she would have stopped the discussion there students may have assimilated the information. She does not, however. Instead, she discusses the differences between manatees and cows with the students. One example is that cows have legs and manatees do not. This leads students to accommodate the new information; This helps students to create a new schema for manatees. This brings students back to equilibrium. She then discusses the characteristics and habitat of manatees and organizes this information into a matrix. The students are then able to add this information to their new schema. This organization will help students to retrieve the information later. There are other strategies that would be helpful for Ms. Dennison to use that would help to increase her students’ learning, as suggested by Ormrod. One thing that she could do would be to suggest mnemonics for information that may be difficult to remember later. One example of a mnemonic that she could use in this unit would be HIPPO. This acronym is used to remember the causes of extinction for animals. It stands for habitat, introduction of an exotic species, pollution, population, and over consumption. Another way that Ms. Dennison could help her students would be to provide a hands-on experience to relate to the concept. This could be done within this unit by having students think of ways to conserve their environment, raise money to save a species, or write letters to government officials expressing their concern about the wellbeing of the species. Human memory has many aspects. Storage and retrieval are both essential in this process. The use of schemas can improve storage and retrieval. The three-component model of memory is a good descriptor of the process. A stimulus is initially taken into the sensory register, when it is deemed important the stimuli then moves into the working memory where it is organized, interpreted, and connected to other prior knowledge. The information is then stored in long-term memory, where it awaits retrieval. There are three significant processes that are useful for storing information in long-term memory: organization, elaboration, and visual imagery. Piaget’s theory of knowledge construction is an essential understanding for teachers to perceive student learning through accommodation and assimilation as students move from disequilibrium to equilibrium. There are many strategies that help students effectively learn, store, and retrieve information. It is imperative that teachers help students to complete this process in order for meaningful learning to take place. References Ormrod, J. (2012). Learning, cognition, and memory. In Essentials of educational psychology: big ideas to guide effective teaching (3rd ed., pp. 16-55). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Thursday, January 2, 2020
Civil And Criminal Procedures - Free Essay Example
Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2867 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Compare and contrast essay Tags: Criminal Justice Essay Criminal Law Essay Did you like this example? Why is civil procedure different from criminal procedure? In criminal matters, action is taken by the state (either federal, state, or local government agencies) against an individual for a violation of the law. A criminal matter can result a sentence such as a fine, probation or time in jail. The sentence is imposed upon a defendant who pleads or is found guilty to keep him from acting in the same manner in the future and also to deter others from acting in a similar manner. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Civil And Criminal Procedures" essay for you Create order Since a criminal matter can result in the state taking away a persons freedom, there are additional constitutional protections built into the rules of criminal procedure. In civil matter, the controversy is between two or more people (people can include individuals, businesses or government agencies). Most often, the result is an award of money to be paid by one party to the other. The judgment is imposed to make the aggrieved person whole for the harm that has been caused by the other. A judgment in a civil matter does not include the imposition of a criminal sentence. The rules of civil procedure are different than that of criminal procedure because proceedings are different. Criminal procedure From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_procedure Criminal procedure refers to the legal process for adjudicating claims that someone has violated criminal law. Basic rights Currently, in many countries with a democratic system and the rule of law, criminal procedure puts the burden of proof on the prosecution that is, it is up to the prosecution to prove that the defendant is guilty beyond any reasonable doubt, as opposed to having the defense prove that s/he is innocent, and any doubt is resolved in favor of the defendant. This provision, known as the presumption of innocence, is required, for example, in the 46 countries that are members of the Council of Europe, under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, and it is included in other human rights documents. However, in practice it operates somewhat differently in different countries. Similarly, all such jurisdictions allow the defendant the right to legal counsel and provide any defendant who cannot afford their own lawyer with a lawyer paid for at the public expense (which is in some countries called a court-appointed lawyer). Again, the efficiency of this system depends greatly on the jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, the lawyers provided to indigent defendants are often overworked or less competent, or may not take much interest in the cases they have to defend.[citation needed] Civil procedure From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_procedure Civil procedure is the body of law that sets out the rules and standards that courts follow when adjudicating civil lawsuits (as opposed to procedures in criminal law matters). These rules govern how a lawsuit or case may be commenced, what kind of service of process (if any) is required, the types of pleadings or statements of case, motions or applications, and orders allowed in civil cases, the timing and manner of depositions and discovery or disclosure, the conduct of trials, the process for judgment, various available remedies, and how the courts and clerks must function. Civil Procedure is one of the first-year law school courses mandated by the American Bar Association.[1] Differences between civil and criminal procedure Ward Churchill testifying in defense of his scholarship in the civil trial of Ward Churchill v. University of Colorado on March 23, 2009. Criminal and civil procedure are different. Although some systems, including the English, allow private persons to bring a criminal prosecution against another person, prosecutions are nearly always started by the state, in order to punish the defendant. Civil actions, on the other hand, are started by private individuals, companies or organizations, for their own benefit. The cases are usually in different courts, and juries are not so often used in civil cases. In Anglo-American law, the party bringing a criminal charge (that is, in most cases, the state) is called the prosecution, but the party bringing most forms of civil action is the plaintiff or claimant. In both kinds of action the other party is known as the defendant. A criminal case against a person called Ms. Sanchez would be described as The People v. (=versus, against or and) Sanchez, The State (or Commonwealth) v. Sanchez or [The name of the State] v. Sanchez in the United States and R. (Regina, that is, the Queen) v. Sanchez in England. But a civil action between Ms. Sanchez and a Mr. Smith would be Sanchez v. Smith if it was started by Sanchez, and Smith v. Sanchez if it was started by Mr. Smith. Most countries make a clear distinction between civil and criminal procedure. For example, a criminal court may force a convicted defendant to pay a fine as punishment for his crime, and the legal costs of both the prosecution and defense. But the victim of the crime generally pursues his claim for compensation in a civil, not a criminal, action.[2] In France and England, however, a victim of a crime may incidentally be awarded compensation by a criminal court judge. Evidence from a criminal trial is generally admissible as evidence in a civil action about the same matter. For example, the victim of a road accident does not directly benefit if the drive r who injured him is found guilty of the crime of careless driving. He still has to prove his case in a civil action, unless the doctrine of collateral estoppel applies, as it does in most American jurisdictions.[2] In fact he may be able to prove his civil case even when the driver is found not guilty in the criminal trial, because the standard to determine guilt is higher than the standard to determine fault. However, if a driver is found by a civil jury not to have been negligent, a prosecutor may be estopped from charging him criminally. If the plaintiff has shown that the defendant is liable, the main remedy in a civil court is the amount of money, or damages, which the defendant should pay to the plaintiff.[2] Alternative civil remedies include restitution or transfer of property, or an injunction to restrain or order certain actions. The standards of proof are higher in a criminal case than in a civil one, since the state does not wish to risk punishing an innocent pers on. In English law the prosecution must prove the guilt of a criminal beyond reasonable doubt; but the plaintiff in a civil action is required to prove his case on the balance of probabilities.[2] Thus, in a criminal case a crime cannot be proven if the person or persons judging it doubt the guilt of the suspect and have a reason (not just a feeling or intuition) for this doubt. But in a civil case, the court will weigh all the evidence and decide what is most probable. What is differences between civil procedure and criminal procedure? https://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_differences_between_civil_procedure_and_criminal_procedure [Improve] civil procedure is the rules and regulations applied to civil matters in the US. Criminal Procedure details the rules and regulations of criminal proceedings. civil procedure is the rules and regulations applied to civil matters in the US. Criminal Procedure details the rules and regulations of criminal proceedings. civil procedure is the rules and regulations applied to civil matters in the US. Criminal Procedure details the rules and regulations of criminal proceedings. civil procedure is the rules and regulations applied to civil matters in the US. Criminal Procedure details the rules and regulations of criminal proceedings. civil procedure is the rules and regulations applied to civil matters in the US. Criminal Procedure details the rules and regulations of criminal proceedings. civil procedure is the rules and regulations applied to civil matters in the US. Criminal Procedure details the rules and regulations of criminal proceedings. How do civil and criminal law differ? https://www.abanet.org/publiced/practical/criminal/criminal_civil.html Both criminal and civil cases involve a dispute over the rights and responsibilities of the people involved. In civil matters, the issue is usually money. In a criminal case, however, the defendant might be ordered to pay a fine or sentenced to probation, jail or prison, or even death. It is the possibility of losing life or liberty that distinguishes criminal from civil penalties. What is the difference between civil and criminal law? https://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_civil_and_criminal_law Answer Criminal law refers to those actions that have been declared illegal. They are prosecuted by the state (city, state or country). The defendant is found guilty beyond a reasonable doubt or found not guilty. Criminal laws are malum per se, meaning that it is against the moral principles of society. They are normally punished with fines and/or loss of freedom through jail or probation. Civil laws are malum prohibitum, meaning that they are against the law because someone has said so. These are things like speeding and parking violations. They do not result in loss of freedom, though they can result in loss of privilages or fines. Civil Law deals with disagreements between citizens were no crime has been committed, or a separate cause of action even when a crime has been committed. The defendant is found liable by a preponderance of the evident, meaning they jury believes that it is likely that the defendant did what they are accused of by more than 50% of the evidence, or the y are found not liable. A famous example is that OJ was tried twice, once on a criminal action for murder where he was acquitted, and once for a wrongful death suit, which he was found liable for. Answer Civil law pertains to non criminal charges such as a person owes someone a debt and hasnt paid, a landlord taking a tenant to court to get any rent due, etc. Criminal law deals with criminal activities such as D.W.I.s, robberies, assaults, etc.wih criminal laws you have to prove beyond reasonable doubt and with civil you have to prove preponderance of evidence. Answer Criminal laws are laws that seek to prevent people from deliberately or recklessly harming each other or each others property, civil laws seek to prevent disputes between individuals, organizations, or governments, in which no criminal laws have been broken. Answer In criminal law the burden of proof is that guilt must be shown beyond all reasonable doubt. Whiles in civil law the burden of proof is that liability must be shown on the balance of probabilities. Civil and Criminal Law https://www.wvlrc.org/civilcriminal.htm Civil Law     All legal questions that dont involve crimes are matters of civil law. When a suit is filed in court over a broken contract, deliberate or negligent injury, withheld government benefit, failed marriage (divorce) or any other dispute, a civil action has been brought and civil law is involved. In a civil action, the court may be asked to issue orders, award monetary damages or dissolve a marriage, but imprisonment is almost never a possibility. An exception is when a court orders a parent to pay child support and the parent willfully refuses.  Areas of Civil Law: Administrative Law                        Employment Law                     Military Law Bankruptcy                                     Energy Law                              Multimedia Law Business and Professions Law      Environmental Law                  Municipal Law Civil Rights Law                             Estate Planning                        Prison Law Commercial Law                             Evidence                                   Property Law Computer Law                                Family Law                                Public Utilities Law Constitutional Law                         Health Law                                Tax Law Consumer Law                               Housing Law                              Tort (Personal Injury) Law Contracts                                        Insurance Law                           Unemployment Insurance Corporation Law                            Intellectual Property Law          Vehicle Law Creditor/Debtor Law                     Juvenile Law                               Veterans Law Cyberlaw                                        Labor Law                                    Warranties Education Law                               Landlord/Tenant Law                   Welfare Law Elder Law                                       Media Law                                    Workers Compensation Criminal Law     Generally, if a certain type of behavior is punishable by imprisonment, then criminal law is involved. For example, legislatures have generally chosen to treat shoplifting as a crime, and convicted shoplifters can end up in jail. On the other hand, most legislatures have chosen not to criminalize shady business practices. Instead, they have designated them as matters for which victims can sue for monetary compensation that is, civil offenses.     Criminal charges are usually initiated in court by a government prosecutor, though some states allow minor criminal charges to be brought by a victim. The government is always involved, however, because crimes are considered offenses against the people. Accordingly, if you are involved in a legal dispute with a non-governmental individual or corporation, then the matter is not criminal. But because both the state and federal governments are often involved in civil as well as criminal matters, it is impossible to tell whether you are dealing with a criminal or civil situation based solely on the fact that a government entity is one of the parties. Areas of Criminal Law: Assault and Battery                         Juvenile Offenses                      Rape Breaking and Entering                     Kidnapping                                 Robbery Burglary                                            Larceny                                      Shoplifting Conspiracy                                        Lewd Behavior                           Smuggling Disorderly Conduct                          Malicious Mischief                    Tax Evasion Drug and Narcotics Offenses          Marijuana Cultivation                Trespass Drunk Driving                                  Murder                                        Weapons Offenses Information on this page was taken from Legal Research: How to Find Understand the Law by Stephen Elias Susan Levinkind, Nolo, 2003. Criminal and Civil Law https://www.cscja-acjcs.ca/criminal_civil_law-en.asp?l=4 Criminal law, one of two broad categories of law, deals with acts of intentional harm to individuals but which, in a larger sense, are offences against us all. It is a crime to break into a home because the act not only violates the privacy and safety of the homes occupants it shatters the collective sense that we are secure in our own homes. A crime is a deliberate or reckless act that causes harm to another person or another persons property, and it is also a crime to neglect a duty to protect others from harm. Canadas Criminal Code, created in 1892, lists hundreds of criminal offences from vandalism to murder and stipulates the range of punishment that can be imposed. Since crimes are an offence against society, normally the state or Crown investigates and prosecutes criminal allegations on the victims behalf. The police gather evidence and, in court, public prosecutors present the case against the person accused of the crime. For someone to be convicted of a crime, it must be proven that a crime was committed and, for most offences, that the person meant to commit the crime. For instance, striking another person is the crime of assault but it is only a crime if the blow was intentional. Civil law deals with disputes between private parties, or negligent acts that cause harm to others . For example, if individuals or companies disagree over the terms of an agreement, or who owns land or buildings, or whether a person was wrongfully dismissed from their employment, they may file a lawsuit asking the courts to decide who is right. As well, the failure to exercise the degree of caution that an ordinarily prudent person would take in any situation may result in a negligence claim. Depending on the circumstances, a person may be held responsible for any damages or injury that occurs as a result of their negligence. Family law cases involving divorce, parental responsibility for children, spousal support, child support and division of property between spouses or common law couples represent a large portion of the civil law cases presented to the courts. Challenges to decisions of administrative tribunals, allegations of medical malpractice and applications for distribution of the estates of deceased persons are other examples of civil cases. The party who brings the legal action is known as the plaintiff or applicant, while the party being sued is the defendant or respondent. The courts may dismiss a case, or if it is found to have merit, the courts may order the losing party to take corrective action, although the usual outcome is an order to pay damages a monetary award designed to make up for the harm inflicted. The state plays no role in civil cases, unless the government launches a lawsuit or is the party being sued. Parties retain a lawyer or may choose to represent themselves to gather evidence and present the case in court. Differing standards of proof: More ev idence is needed to find the accused at fault in criminal cases than to find the defendant at fault in civil ones. To convict someone of a crime, the prosecution must show there is proof beyond a reasonable doubt that the person committed the crime and, in most cases, that they intended to commit it. Judges and juries cannot convict someone they believe probably committed the crime or likely is guilty they must be almost certain. This gives the accused the benefit of any reasonable doubt and makes it less likely an innocent person will be wrongfully convicted and imprisoned. Civil cases, in contrast, must be proven on a balance of probabilities if it is more likely than not that the defendant caused harm or loss, a court can uphold a civil claim.
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